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This paper was written as an assignment for Ian Walton's Math G -Math for liberal Arts Students - at Mission College.

To explore other such papers go to the Math G Projects Page.
 

During the 1970's the newly established Women's Movementwanted to know the reason why women were congregating to low payingcareers. Research discovered that math paved the way to betterpaying jobs and women were opting to focus on majors in collegethat required little or no math. Women also only took basic mathcourses in high school. Women were avoiding math and learningto be afraid of it. And so began the study of "Math Anxiety".We are not born with a fear of math; it's a learned behavior.

This learned behavior that we call Math Anxiety is the way wereact to math. Mathematics has such a negative connotation thatit can induce emotional stress. No other subject unleashes suchanxiety. It usually begins in early childhood due to a negativeexperience with math. Why are some of us filled with anxiety whenit comes to math while others seem to breeze right through? Areboys better at math than girls? Are there some individuals bornwith an innate ability to do math while others seem to be bornwith an inability to comprehend it? Is there a "math gene"?The debate over nature verses nurture in mathematicalability goes on today.

Some researchers contend that males have a greater ability tounderstand math. One such study was conducted by Johns HopkinsPsychologist Camilla Perssons Benbow and Julian C. Stanley asthey set out to examine the idea that boys do better than girlsin math. They took a group of 7^th and 8^thgrade students, whose educational background was virtually thesame. Out of 10,000 students, 43% were girls. These students wereamong the top 2-5% in mathematical ability. The students tookthe Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), usually given to high schooljuniors and seniors. In the math portion of the SAT the boys scoredhigher than the girls. Because of this study Benbow and Stanleywere convinced that there was something more than environmentthat effected the results. Although researchers in the field disagreedwith their findings, the media blitz was overwhelming. Thus theidea of the "math gene" was conceived. More recentlyBenbow and Stanley attributed this higher ability in males tothe male sex hormone, testosterone, in the prenatal stage. "Supposedlythis hormone strengthens the right hemisphere, the part of thebrain specialized in spatial visualization". 1Researchers claimed that this ability is essential in solvingmath problems. No one has been able to show evidence of its influencein the brain function in the prenatal stage.

What is spatial ability? There is no definitive agreementof the definition from mathematicians, psychologists or educators.Some say it's the ability to visualize three-dimensional figuresin various positions. Others think it's the capability to handlea task involving relationships in space. For example, judgingthe closeness of an object would demonstrate spatial ability.Anyone who plays ball has some intuitive feeling about spatialrelationships. "In women the left hemisphere is supposedlymore developed, resulting in greater verbal ability, while menwith their right brain superiority are thought to excel in spatialability. Tests show that both halves of the brain are involvedin most mental processes".2 In one studya group of participants was asked to perform two tasks, one requiringspatial ability and the other using numerical judgment. The participantswere hooked up to recording electrodes to track the use of theleft and right side of the brain during the required tasks. Itwas discovered that each task displayed an array of electricalactivity from both sides of the brain.

"At present we have relatively little information about theinterrelationships of brain, ability and learning experiences".3There are studies verifying that practice can increase spatialability. Joan Ferrini-Mundy conducted such a study. She gave thewomen in her calculus class training in imaging a solid figureas it revolved about an axis. She concluded, "practice onspatial tasks enhanced women's ability and tendency to visualizewhile doing solid-of-revolution problems". The women equaledor surpassed the men in the class. Is spatial ability so importantin understanding and doing math? No, it's not always the case."Some branches of mathematics do not involve spatial relationshipsat all" 4 Many believe that environment,not genes, is the cause of the male students receiving a highermath score. Sheila Tobias, feminist author of "OvercomingMath Anxiety", stated, "If your mother hates math andyour father tells you not to worry your pretty little head aboutit, do you think that a math test would be an accurate measureof your ability". 5

Some researchers and educators have begun to test the theory of,"If we reward girls differently, will the differences inmath scores decrease". 6 In a study publishedin 1980, Judy Genshaft of Ohio State and Michael Hert of KentState conducted tests on three dozen girls. Two groups of girlswere given extra lessons in reducing their math anxiety. Bothgroups improved their interest and understanding of mathematicsin an eight-week period. The third group was not given any additionalhelp and their understanding did not improve. After that studywas published, more than 130 colleges began math anxiety programs.The dispute continues. Patricia Lund Casserly, a senior researchassociate with the Educational Testing Service, is among thosewho believe that results are what really count. "The questionof genetic differences doesn't matter to me," she says. "Thequestion is, can girls learn math, can girls make fine scientistand engineers? The answer is yes". 7

Is there a genetic difference? Is there a math gene? In Aprilof 1999 an article in the Phi Delta Kappan addressed thetopic of the "Demise of the Asian Gene". The articleaddressed a myth that Asian Americans perform better on mathematicstest, particularly the SAT, and that a "smart gene"is responsible. Research shows that there is a correlation betweensocioeconomic factors and the ability to do well on math tests.When this is factored in, the Asian Americans students resembleother students. The Education Testing Service also found thatAsians were better educated and wealthier than the nation as awhole. This suggests those socioeconomic advantages rather thangenes make the difference. Whatever the experts say about whyAsians do better than Caucasians or boys do better than girls,the fact is all groups, male and female, and ethnic groups needto be given the same opportunities. If and when children are giventhe same opportunities, the truth about math ability, or lackof it, will come to the surface.

A study conducted by Educational Testing Services (ETS), the agencythat developed the SAT test, noted that the high school seniorsfrom 1980 scored lower than the students from 1960. Thomas Hiltonconcluded that lower scores were due to the way people spent theirtime. The more time spent watching TV, meant more time taken awayfrom sports and hobbies that help develop spatial ability. Schoolsno longer require classes such as sewing, drawing or woodshop,which helped develop one's spatial ability. The SAT exam is supposedto measure a person's aptitude. SAT tests have been heavily criticized.They have been labeled as gender and culturally biased. "Themajor source of bias, however, cannot be removed by ETS. It liesin the inequities in our society". 8Students from wealthy and highly educated parents score much higherthan students from low income and poorly educated parents. Bothmales and females from working class neighborhoods score lowerthan those from middle or wealthy families. The ETS now claimsthat the SAT is a predictor of a student's college performancerather than ability. Studies show that high school grades area better predictor than SAT's. We are led to believe that theSAT's measures innate ability. Reality is, the test reveals theeducation attitude, experience, and ability to take time tests.Not everyone agrees with this. The New York Times in 1989,Steven Goldberg, chair of the sociology department of the CityCollege of New York argued: "It is the male superiority atcollege performance . . . .No serious researcher questions malesuperiority in mathematical reasoning". His argument wasbased on males receiving a higher math score on the SAT. He alsostated, "The SAT"s are the best predictor of collegeperformance", and they "emphasized intelligence".9The New York Times published several letters refuting Golberg'sargument. One letter came from the mathematics chairmen from Harvardand Princeton Universities.

Mathematics educators Laurie Hart Reyes and GeorgeM.A. Stanic call for a research program to analyze the ways inwhich race, gender, and socioeconomic status influence the learningof mathematics. We live in a society where racism and sexism exit.What we don't know for sure, is how these ideas affect the learningof math. As we approach the 21^st Century, more thanever before, the American workforce needs to be educated, competitiveand equipped for the careers of the future. With the rapid growthof technology, the differences between the highly educated andthe uneducated are becoming wider. We need to dispel the myththat minorities and women do not have the ability to perform wellin math.

What do we know about the process of learning math? There is aproverb that states, "I hear and I forget; I see, and I remember;I do, and I understand".10 This is truein learning mathematics. Most of us learned math by drill andmemorization, working alone at our desks, and shielding our papersfrom the eyes of others. Too often students just memorize ruleswithout understanding the concepts behind them. The emphasis inmath class is on what students do, not on what students understand.According to Marilyn Burns, author of Math:Facing an AmericanPhobia, doing math has to do with thinking and reasoning problemsand situations. She also feels children learn by participatingin games and activities that involves mathematics. Good teachingmeans students are helped not only to learn the skills and conceptsof math, but also to understand what they learn. Marilyn says"There's a reason mathematics is one of the time honoredthree R's". "If children don't understand mathematicsin the early grades, they won't stick with it later on in school".11 Teachers need to energize traditional mathwith Hands-on, Minds-on Activities. Teachers can make mathematicsmeaningful with stimulating activities. Math today, accordingto Marilyn Burns needs to focus on helping students understandthe math they are studying. The National Council of Teachers ofMathematics has 5 goals for implementing math. Students shouldlearn to reason mathematically, become mathematical problem solvers;learn to communicate mathematically, become confident in theirability to do mathematics and learn to value mathematics. Withthese goals implemented in today's classroom we would see a significantincrease in the number of students that continue on with math.Most children don't continue with math once it becomes an elective.If high school graduates continue to avoid math they will be eliminatedfrom many of today's high paying careers. Employers are seekingemployees with the ability to reason and solve problems. If wecan understand mathematics we will be able to think, reason anddevelop problem-solving skills. Is the next generation ready foremployment in the 21^st Century?

In USA Today on June 26, 1997, a feature asked the questions"Are students ready for Work?" The survey compared theopinions of employers and high school seniors as to whether theyare ready for the workplace. The categories ranged from communicationto math skills. Of the students, 62% felt they were prepared,while only 8% of the employers felt they were ready. The NationalResearch Council reports, "Over 75% of all jobs require proficiencyin simple algebra and geometry, either as a prerequisite to atraining program or as a part of a licensure examination".12 As we consider the importance of math inbusiness, whether its preparing budgets, making market predictionsor coming up with an estimate, math is essential in the sciencesand engineering. The medical fields as well as technical jobsrely on people with math expertise.

In conclusion, I feel that whether we are planning our futureor trying to improve a career we've already chosen, math is animportant part of that process. No one is born with an inabilityto understand math. Our abilities or inabilities come from ourparticular life experiences, environment, socioeconomic advantageor disadvantage. There is no "math gene". Whether oneis born male or female, I think with practice and diligence anyonecan learn to be proficient in math at a level in which one canfeel a sense of accomplishment.

Louise Anderson

November 1, 1999

Math G

Claudia Zaslavsky. "Fear of Math How to Get Over It and GetOn With Your Life".

Rutgers University Press New Brunswick, New Jersey 1994

Marilyn Burns. "Math: Facing an American Phobia" .MathSolutions Publications 1999

Dennis A. Williams with Patricia King. "Males Have a MathGene?" Newsweek,

December 15, 1980, v96 pg. 73

Gerald W. Bracey. "Demise of the Asian Gene". Phi DeltaKappan, April 1998 v80 i8

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